Table 1 Parameter settings of involved algorithms

GWO

Convergence constant a decreases linearly from 2 to 0; r₁ =0–1, r₂=0−1

PSO

Acceleration constants are both set as 2, inertia weights are set as (\({\omega }_{\mathrm{min}}=0.2\), \({\omega }_{\mathrm{max}}=0.9\))

WOA

Convergence constant a decreases linearly from 2 to 0; \({\alpha }_{2}\) decreases from − 1 to − 2; r₁ =0−1, r₂=0−1

SSA

The number of producers is 20%. The number of dangers is 10%. The safety threshold is set as 0.8

ALO

The number of populations and iterations

MFO

The number of populations and iterations

MVO

Minimum and maximum of wormhole existence probability of 0.2 and 1, respectively